World History

 The wind of change is blowing through the continent. Whether we like it or not, this growth of national  consciousness is a political fact, and our national policies must take account of it.” – 1960 wrt to African  decolonisation

PHILOSOPHERS

ROUSSEAU:  Pol philosophy & socialism:  ∙ Greed corrupted man🡪 strong captured land & property & forced week to obey them 🡪 ideal time  human being had when there was no pvt property 🡪 perfect world man in natural state ∙ Natural inequality🡪 can b tolerated as it id beyond control  ∙ Inequality Created by society must b removed  Pol philosophy & democracy:  ∙ Social contract theory & general will  ∙ Sovereignty in hands of people + distinction b/s govt & sovereignty  ∙ Man is born free & everywhere he is in chains  Pol philosophy & absolutism:  ∙ General will not consensus of individual members of society as that contains pvt interest too ∙ Submission to authority of general will of people even by abandoning natural rights as they are  collectively authors of law  ∙ Govt can remove particular wills that do not conform to general will- used by dictators like  Robespierre  ∙ More political mparties 🡪 more division among people 🡪 conversion of French republic to one  party state  ∙ Opposed to idea that people should exercise sovereignty via rep assembly  perfect political system: one in which every individual articulates their wants but ultimately  compromises for the betterment of the general public. This was called “general will”

Enlightened rulers:  ∙ Catherine the great Russia  ∙ Joseph II & maria Theresa – Austria abolished serfdom + promoted individual rights education,  religious tolerance 🡪 announced too many reforms without support  ∙ Frederick the great – Prussia- admirer of Voltaire  ∙ Charles 3 of spain

Marxian communism & Hegel

ultimate   synthesis  synthesis   thesis -  antithesis  antithesis -  synthesis -  capitalism   -  (becomes   feudalism  bourgeoise  proletariat  socialism  communis  new thesis)  m Rousseau started the thought of socialism

Rousseau’s romanticism : as a philosophy stressed return to life as it can be seen, felt & experienced &  thus encouraged a reliance on emotion, intution & instinct as opposed to reason in guiding human  behaviour  ∙ Emphasis on natural order & natural state of man instead of over emphasising reason in  guiding human behaviour  ∙ Autobiography confessions new era of thinking🡪 anxiety over the struggle ∙ Prompting of heart are more to be trusted than logic of mind- romanticism ∙ Did not see human face in scientific revolution 🡪 material developments🡪 IR more misery  than good as mind rusted more than heart 🡪 inc misery + lossening of family ties

Factors of rush towards occupation of more territories:  ∙ Colonies as source of pride  ∙ Political motives 🡪 military value of colonies  ∙ New markets & source of raw material  ∙ Invention of steam engine & hulled boats🡪 rennaissance & tech advances  ∙ Adveture spirit🡪 knowledge of geographical areas  ∙ Medical advances against African disease like malaria  ∙ Exploratoins by livingstone & stanley  ∙ Ideas of charles darwin evolutionary theory  ∙ Eugenics movement & racism  ∙ Religious & cultural motives  ∙ Rise of germany & Italy

Ronald robinson 🡪 partition oof Africa was freaky  Partitions & conquering without war🡪 berlin conference 1884 -85 & algeciras conference of 1906 + bogus  treaties & misinterpretations + indifference by considering it gamble in bush & jungles in which poor king  like leopold of belgians will be interested 🡪 paper partition seen in straight lines in present countries🡪 most accelerated colonisation 1870-10% colonised; 1914-90% 🡪 popular ideas of 19th century used for  justification e.g. white man’s burden 🡪 humanitarian façade @ berlin by condemning slave trade;  prohibiting sale of alcoholic beverages & firearms in certain conditions + concern for missionary activities

Economic motives of New Imperialism  ∙ The growth of European industry, the increase in production capacity, and thesurplus of capital  created the necessity of finding new markets, new sources of raw materials, and new areas for  capital investment.  ∙ There was a great demand for natural resources and products not found in Western countries, such  as rubber, oil, and tin. Instead of trading for these products with these countries, they choose direct  control over the areas where raw materials were found.  ∙ economic expansion demanded cheap labour, access to or control of markets to sell or buy  product. Thus, people who live in big countries started to support colonial policies. In doing so, the  capitalism was growing hand in hand with imperialism.  ∙ Policy of protection led to a demand of colonies: & creed of national self sufficiency ∙ Competition sharpened by depression in 1873-96 🡪 abandon free trade by many Nationalistic factors of New Imperialism  ∙ huge colonial empire of Britain had set a standard and the idea was growing that the possessions of  colonies was part of the proper equipment of a great power.  ∙ Entry of ITALY & germany 🡪 aggressive nationalism 🡪 patriotism shifted from love of country  into love of more country🡪 matter of prestige  ∙ psychological reaction, an ardent desire to maintain or recover national prestige🡪 france for alsace

lorraine  ∙ Public agitation for extending overseas the political dominion of European national states began  with patriotic intellectuals - Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany opened  institutions to promote the idea of imperialism, and took great pride in calling their territories  empires.  Arguments in favor of New imperialism as a nationalistic and not an economic phenomena: ∙ sequence of imperialism after 1870 appears to have been, first, pleas for colonies on the ground of  national prestige; second, getting them; third, disarming critics by economic argument; and fourth,  carrying this into effect and relating the results to the neo-mercantilism of tariff protection and  social legislation at home.  ∙ Theories postulating Europe’s need to export surplus capital (so need to find new colonies) do not  fit the facts only UK & France capital exporters  ∙ In so far as it was economic, it did not affect the “capitalist class” as a whole, but only particular  business interests but they did not cause imperialism though throve on it  ∙ Some capitalists undoubtedly promoted imperialism, and more profited by it. But it was the  nationalistic masses who made it possible and who most vociferously applauded and most  constantly backed it.  ∙ Sheer love of adventure was a potent lure to imperialism. For example: Stanley was patently an  adventurer. He had no surplus goods to sell, no surplus capital to invest.  ∙ Of the explorers, the majority had military training. E.g. De Brazza was naval French officer ∙ Explorers and adventurers gave rise to a peculiar species of organizer and administrator, despotic  and ruthless and most devotedly imperialistic and patriotic- for their glory & their nation ∙ In many instances European flags were hoisted as a sport – a competitive sport – with indifference  to economic motives

Dutch Culture system (revenue policy)had following main provisions in Indonesia: 1. The villager had to give land rent to the government by setting aside 20% of his rice field for the  cultivation export crops suitable for European market such as sugar, coffee, tea, indigo, pepper and cotton. 2. If the villager had no land, he had to work in a government field for 20% of a year i.e. 66 days without  any payment.  3. Crop failure resulting from any cause other than the fault of the cultivator was debited to the  government  IMPACT :  ∙ significant returns to the government exchequer, served the purpose of promoting Dutch commerce  and shipping and made the Dutch East Indies self-suficient and profitable quickly.  ∙ burdensome and exploitative for farmers and labours  ∙ failure🡪 people responsible   ∙ production demanded even from those who paid taxes  Reasons of dismantling  ∙ Humanitarian Concerns  ∙ New ideas of free trade & entrepreneurship  ∙ Constitutional reform in Holland 🡪 still continued for sugar & coffee .

Treaty of Nanking 🡪 marked end f 1st opium war b/w British & China  ∙ 1st unequal traty signed by china -> biritsh extra territoriality rights  ∙ Indemnity + hongkong + 5 treaty ports + any rights granted to other country automatically to  britain  ∙ Forcible breakdown of isolation of china  ∙ Set pattern for further treaties signed by china  ∙ Mfn status 4 w powers, ended qing’s monopoly of trade + abolish trade restrictions ∙ Priveleges for traders & missionaries  ∙ No interference by china in opium traffic + fixing of import duties in china by w powers ∙ Unstable structure 🡪 2nd opium war, sino japanese war, revolution of 1911. Boxer rising, rise of  communist party

Self Strengthening movement in China: 1861-95  ∙ Push to modernise china in industry & defence following series of military defeats & concessions

∙ Main leaders Feng guifen; Li Hongzhang  ∙ Reason— 2nd opium wars defeat, treaty of tienstein, taiping rebellion  Major idea-  ∙ Qing imperial system superior to west & all that wwas needed was to improve military capacity ∙ Ignored w pol & economic systems  ∙ Attempt to add w sc & tech onto confucian culture  ∙ Projects: coal mining, railway line, defence ships, ammunition & machines. Network of post offices  Successes- modern trained Chinese  ∙ Attempt at modern transport & industry  Reasons of Failure  ∙ Geography huge +natural disasters  ∙ Resistance of dealing with foreigners from court officials  ∙ Technology gap  ∙ Self strengtheners not businessman  ∙ Lack of admn, financial, legal structure  ∙ Huge cost of building  ∙ HR cost very high  ∙ Flawed idea

British imperialism in S Africa  ∙ Dutch colony till 1795🡪 taken during French wars by british stayed with them in settelement ∙ Cape colony  ∙ 1879 Anglo zulu war🡪 consolidation of territories  ∙ Boer moveement to Natal, transvaal & orange 🡪 boer war 🡪 peace treaty self govt to boer ∙ Role of rhodes🡪dream of empire from cairo to cape 🡪 2nd boer war over contrrol of gold &  diamond mines  ∙ Annexing to crown & formation of Unionof S africa  ∙ 1907🡪 self govt; delayed due to presence of unfriendly boers

Factors for rise of unipolar world  Unipolarity refers to a distribution of power in which one state exercises most of cultural, economic &  military influence  ∙ End of cold war  ∙ Disintegration of USSR  ∙ Economic dependence of Russia & other republics of USSR on US & W ecnomic aid ∙ Role of US—gulf wars + willingness of other nations to support policies of US in UN , inc  Strength due to fall of USSR ; inability of others to challenge US; ability to keep & expand NATO;  inc control over UNSC, WB, WTO etc  ∙ Universal acceptance of democracy, decentralization, market economy, globalization,  denuclearization, demilitarisation & develipment- IDEOLOGICAL UNIPOLARITY ∙ Internal focus of nations- India economic crisis; China isolated; Germany fall of Berlin wall  consolidation; Japan abstained from developing military power  ∙ Failure of NAM to revive its traditional role in world politics

Factors of collapse of USSR:  ∙ Stagnant economy 🡪 too much centralisation & contrrl; controls & restrictions; inefficiency;  planned economy, collectivised agriculture  ∙ 25% expenditure on military +arms race + cold war 🡪 negligence of social sector; military had  quantitative dvatage but lagged qualitatively  ∙ OIL GLUT🡪 oil main source of revenue badly harmed  ∙ Prez Reagen;s attitude 🡪 USSR as evil empire; inc in spedning of US+ military buildup + isolation  of USSR economically  ∙ Soviet war in Afghan 🡪 lasted 9 years motive not established had to give up & sign peace treaty

∙ Gorbachev’s perestroika (resturcturing) & glasnost (openess) 🡪 liberalising reforms🡪 for radicals  to less for bureaucrats too much🡪 obstruction  o Wages dependent on output🡪 output measured by value in roubles🡪 focus not on  increasing output but on more expensive goods 🡪 consumable & cheaper goods short  supply  o Disillusion with reforms 🡪 raissed expectations 🡪 outrages  o Hastened fall bu loosening control over people & reforms to pol & eco elites --> USSR govt  appeared weak & vulnerable 🡪 newfound powers organised ended USSR rule  ∙ Nationalist pressure🡪 15 republics varying ethnically, linguistic, culture🡪 forced russification 🡪 secular norms + ban on religious practices 🡪 tight control loosened suddenly 🡪 demands got out  of hands  ∙ Breaking away of east europe – oil& gas subsisdies + military expense- eco burden 🡪 ussr verge of  collapse even WARSAW PACT loosing powers🡪 rise of grassroots mmovements in Poland,  Hungary etc 🡪 civil resistance + pressure to chhange  ∙ German unification🡪 dismantling of iron curtail by Hungary & destabilizing of germany 🡪 falll of  berlin war🡪 gorbachev dropped objection in return of financial help  ∙ Chernobyl disaste in Ukraine in 1986  ∙ Absence of democratic base  ∙ Contact & support from west  ∙ International economic scenario

Perestroika essence: for people to feel they are country’s master  ∙ Rejected notion that pol & economic institutions of state should favpur one class over other  instead🡪 equal access & representation 🡪 societal development + pan human values priority ∙ Economic resturcturing – relaxed quota system; allowed pvt ownership; way for foreign  investment; redirection from military commitments to civilians sector  ∙ Political restructuring: reduce direct involvement of communist party leadership in governance;  inc local govt authority; ideological & pol reforms 🡪 multi candidate elcetions 🡪 election of  noncommunist & new parliament created similar congresses in each soviet republic too  ∙ Results- radicals too less; conservative too much attack from both sides; bureaucracy arrack  fearing loss of power & privilege; loss of public support no immediate effect 🡪 disintegration of  USSR; revolutionsi n east europe & end of cold war

Whoever says IR says cotton  ∙ Weaving – flying shuttle by john kay  ∙ Spinning jenny- james hergreaves  ∙ Mechanical power- richard awkwright  ∙ Use of steam power  ∙ Impact on America; India & elsewhere  ∙ Individual🡪 putting out system 🡪 factory system  Advantages:  ∙ Technique @ high development need minor alterations to render semi mechanised & semi  automatic  ∙ Absence of guilds in textiles as it was new industry  ∙ More focuson cloth major commodity of import & later export

Industrial Revolution had brought with itself several social problems in England: ∙ Widening social gap between rich and poor  ∙ Working conditions - high unemployment rate; factory owners could set the terms of work because  there were far more unskilled laborers, who had few skills and take up any work; initially no laws  to regulate them-no bargaining power to demand higher wages, fairer work hours, or better  working conditions; only wealthy people had right ot vote; tough & tragic conditions; no longer  their own bosses  ∙ Combination Acts, which made it illegal for workers to unionize, or combine, as a group to ask for  better working conditions.  ∙ Living conditions: deplorable; poorhouses” set up by the government. The Poor Law of 1834  created workhouses for workers- deliberately harsh places to discourage people from staying

on“relief” (government food aid).  ∙ Urban overcrowding and diseases- century, urban overcrowding, poor diets, poor sanitation, and  essentially medieval medical remedies- fast spread of diseases- cholera, tb, typhus, typhoid etc ∙ Women- physically & emotionally premature breakdown  ∙ Child labour integral to the first factories, mines, and mills in England & cheapest of all Reforms:  ∙ Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 tried to help the condition for workers. ∙ The Factory Act of 1833 to regulate excessive child labor + ppaid inspectors  ∙ Ten Hours Act 1847- for women & children max 63 hours/week  ∙ Education sector- 1870 Education Act set up school districts; 1880- compuslory school upto 1880  & 1944- till 18  ∙ Public Health Act of 1848 set up local health boards, investigated sanitary conditions nationwide,  and established a General Board of Health.  ∙ Artisans’ Dwelling Act (1875) which allowed for a large clearance of slums in England. ∙ Pension of 5 shillings abv 70  ∙ government introduced the National Insurance Act that provided insurance for workers in time of  sickness.  ∙ Unemployment benefit was introduced into certain industries

Protestantism contribution to rise of capitalism  ∙ Relation developed by Weber- protestant ethics & spirit of capitalism  ∙ Commitment & subordination of emotion, cutom & myth🡪 focus on capitalism ∙ Protestantism’s central doctrine of predestination 🡪 didn’t believe it was possible to do good work  to attain heaven in next world🡪 followed accumulation of wealth encouraged people to see  themselves as destined to be saved  ∙ Evaluation- on surface right🡪 catholic portugal & spain lagged behind w nations in terms of  economic development 🡪 careful analysis 🡪 logic inadequate  Drawbacks:   ∙ Commercial spirit precedde reformation🡪 b4 adam smith;s free market concept thinking of nature  of contracts, free market, interest, wages & banking were articulated in writings of spanish  catholics  ∙ Early commercial activities led by catholic like portugal spain

Condition of French people as a whole was no way worse than people of other European countries.  German, Polish and Hungarian peasants had no personal plot of land, no freedom to marry and no right to  move freely. Their condition was no better than Negro slaves in the USA.  There was no serfdom in France, peasants in France were free to move and marry (only they could not  sell). In France, the political power of the feudal nobility had been broken but in Germany and Eastern  Europe the nobles possessed great authority. Even if the French monarchy was bankrupt, the nation was  prosperous + absence of despotic rule  France- the Revolution occurred because:  ∙ Prosperity of average Frenchmen and lack of slavery, gave them power to be critical of their  government  ∙ Better off then rest🡪 favourable conditions 🡪 running out of feudal system; middle classes greater  contact with nobility less marked difference in wat of life but excluded from pol influence &  honours + consciousness of injustice  ∙ Weak monarchy + economic criisis  ∙ Influence of english & american revolution  ∙ Influence of philosophers  ∙ wealthy, intelligent and enlightened middle class who gave leadership to the peasants and workers  which was absent elsewhere  ∙ In France alone had the capital city acquired such importance as to become the centre of the  nation’s entire political and administrative life; so that, when the revolutionary forces had gained  mastery over Paris, the whole country too succumbed to them.  Contribution of Women:  ∙ Food crisis- burden of feeding their families, women took up arms on October 5, 1789,

stormed the city hall in Paris, amassing a sizable army and gathering arms nd marched to  Versailles followed by National guard 🡪 acceptance of August decrees & Declaration of the  Rights of Man and of the Citizen. By louis XVI  ∙ Indirect participation by promoting and propagating modern ideas through societies,  journals, pamphlets  ∙ Women belonging to the sans-culottes or peasantry suffered from problems of rising prices,  low wages, unemployment, food shortage and other such conditions that often resulted in an  extremely miserable existence🡪 revolted  ∙ more elitist or well-to-do sections of society were more concerned about their democratic  aspirations and securing political rights and some degree of equality vis-à-vis men; members  of clubs or salons run from their homes. These women were deeply influenced by the works  of the Philosophers and wrote a number of journals etc  ∙ Olympe de Gouges- Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen – feminist  concern + sex equality

US northern democrats favoured protection of slavery & union while republicans against slavery

CHARTISM: working class movement 1836 to 1848; aim- gain political rights & influence of  working class; name from formal petition People’s charter of 1838. 6 aims:  ∙ Vote 4 every man abv 21  ∙ Secret ballot  ∙ No property qualification for MPs  ∙ Salaries of MP  ∙ Equal constituencies  ∙ Annual parliament  Political roots of movement:  ∙ in pol radicalism from early 19th ce onwarss  ∙ 1838 act- extended franchise & reformed parl seats 🡪 no enfranchisement of working class ∙ Middle class rep 🡪 legislation in there favour 🡪 poor law amendment act poverty a crime 🡪 rise  of chartist to seek pol solution to economic & social problems  ∙ Trade unions allowed with restrictions but failed to bargain  Economic roots:  ∙ New conditions 🡪 factory discipline, low wages, periodic unemployment , high prices  ∙ Exploitation in factories  ∙ Distress of traditional handworkers  ∙ Resentement due to inc gulf bwteen rich & poor  ∙ Corn laws- kept food prices artificially high + protectionist economy  ∙ 1830s🡪 series of bad harvest  ∙ Fiscal crisis of 1830s 🡪 whigs in power 🡪 economic strategy weak + left huge fiscal deficit ∙ Reforms needed in banking, customer & tax (indirectly fell on working class)  Causes of its failure:  ∙ Lack of able and experienced leaders. The leaders differed with one another and there was no  powerful speaker who could explain the objective of the movement to the public.  ∙ Chartist leader O’Connor’s egotism and vanity have been identified as causes in the failure of  Chartism. O’Connor was known to have connections with radical groups which advocated reform  by any means, including violence. But the causes of the movement’s decline are too complex to be  blamed on one man.  ∙ The Chartists were divided in factions and used conflicting means. There was too much diversity in  the intellectual and ideological aims of Chartism.  ∙ The main problem was how to achieve a revolutionary goal by constitutional means. It failed to  obtain parliamentary support for the Charter.  ∙ The middle-classes either ignored, shunned or condemned Chartism due to sometimes violent  protest and other socio economic reasons. Use of violence forced the Government to take strict  measures to suppress the movement. Government also handled the movement firmly and calmly. ∙ It remained a political propaganda without popular backing of British people. Chartist demands

seemed too drastic and strange to the British people.  ∙ Forged signatures used by them in signature campaign undermined their credibility. ∙ The socio-economic position improved after 1842. Prosperity eliminated mass support. y 1918, five of the Chartists’ six demands had been achieved – only the stipulation that parliamentary elections be held every year was unfulfilled.

COntinetal blockade & berlin decrees – anned British ship from entering european ports began in 1806;  Milan decrees- against smuggling – neutral ships stopping in britain b4 landing in Europe subject to  confiscation  Aim: defeat & subjugate Britain + dominate whole europe; Britain stron g navy french lacked it so cant  defeat in sea battle 🡪 force to surrender by blockade  Failure:  ∙ Britain major supplier cheap price 🡪 dependence  ∙ Loss of public sympathy due to price rise  ∙ Impossible by france to contorl vast sea & european coast without powerful fleet & huge  manpower  ∙ Cooperation of all european nations difficult due to dependency  ∙ Britain retaliation🡪 blockade🡪 france hit badly  ∙ Smuggling + black marketing  ∙ Conspiracies against france 🡪 russia, spain, holland  ∙ Struggle b/w pope & napolean  ∙ Britain able to develop market overseas  Mistakes of napolean:  ∙ Supplying corn to britain @ high price thinkning high rates will lead to eco crisis ∙ Overconfidence in intelligence & abilities; pride & ego  ∙ Fundamental error that french will support & sacrifice their personal comfort for napolean ∙ Continuous wars; nationalism in germany , italy & spain; russian exploitation  It became reason for fall of napolean

Main featured of US constitution  ∙ Written  ∙ Brief – 7 articles  ∙ Rigid  ∙ Soveregnty of people  ∙ Separaton of powers   ∙ Federalism   ∙ Check & balance  ∙ Bicameralism  ∙ Executive branch  ∙ Dual citizenship   ∙ Independent judiciary  ∙ Bill of rights  Factors in drafting  ∙ Big v/s small state debate: great or connecticut compromise  ∙ Federalist v/s anti federalist – Massachusetts compromise (bill of rights)  ∙ Slavery debate- 3/5 compromise  ∙ Check & balance; liberty; federaton; bill of rights  ∙ Beard’s view- As economic documents- financial interest – right to property more imp than govt;  written by cohesive elite; occupation & property holding records+ biographical sources- george  washington wealthiest landowner funding for revolution 🡪 consititutional guarantee of payback;  opposed by patriots unwilling to change or people who were unaaware of economic factors; as  counter revolution set up by rich bond holders in opposition to farmers & planters  o Criticism- economic clauses as continental congress lacke dtaxtion & borrowinf nearly lost  was + need of sound economy to make country strong🡪 true unification + identifiable

interests involved in bargaining

Reform act of 1832 Britain  ∙ Seats in hous of commons to cities that rose during IR & removed rotten boroughs (small elctorate  + wealthy domination)  ∙ Extended franchise to vote  ∙ Transferredsovereignty from aristocracy to middle class  Criticism  ∙ Disappointment to working class🡪 rise of chartist  ∙ Did not satisfy phiolosohpical liberals🡪 some abuses removed but left annomalies🡪 broke  aristocracy without admitting that of democracy where rep should not hv been based on wealth,  education or numbers  ∙ No provision for franchise & rep for women  ∙ Still some boroughs remained + bribery  ∙ Influence of house of lords largely undiminished

Battle of sedan- franco prussion war 1870🡪 frankfurt treaty

Locke’s ideas on government and revolution.  ∙ Locke believed that a government’s primary goals should be to foster moral responsibility. It’s  governments duty to protect life, liberty and property of people. He argued that natural rights such  as life, liberty, and property existed in the state of nature and could never be taken away or even  voluntarily given up by individuals. These rights were “inalienable”.  ∙ Locke said that men are naturally free and equal as part of the justification for understanding  legitimate political government as the result of a social contract where people in the state of nature  conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government in order to better ensure the stable,  comfortable enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property.  ∙ Locke’s views were aimed toward modern democracy and were meant to clarify the relationships  between man and state.  ∙ He also talked about withdrawal of consent. Since governments exist by the consent of the people  in order to protect the rights of the people and promote the public good, governments that fail to do  so can be resisted and replaced with new governments. Locke is thus also important for his defense  of the right of revolution. (It indirectly inspired French Revolution later on).  ∙ Locke also defends the principle of majority rule and the separation of legislative and executive  powers. Locke believed that government should be selected by and follow the will of the majority,  which was a fundamental assertion of the Revolution.  ∙ Locke insists that there must be limits to political authority, which the French monarchy did not  have. Locke’s ideas had profound influence on french philosophers of eighteenth century like  Voltaire and Montesquieu.

The World After Second World War Contained The Seed Of European Unity ∙ The Second World War had devastating effect on every aspect of life in Europe. In every country  in Europe there were people who wanted more unity to avoid further future devastation. The best  way for Europe to recover from the ravages of war was for all the states to work together and help  each other by pooling their resources.  ∙ The individual states were too small and their economies too weak for them to be economically and  militarily viable separately in a world now dominated by the superpowers, the USA and the USSR. ∙ The more the countries of western Europe worked together, the less chance there would be of war  breaking out between them again. It was the best way for a speedy reconciliation between France  and Germany.  ∙ Joint action would enable western Europe more effectively to resist the spread of communism from  the USSR.  ∙ The Germans were especially keen on the idea because they thought it would help them to gain  acceptance as a responsible nation more quickly than after the First World War. Then, Germany  had been made to wait eight years before being allowed to join the League of Nations.  ∙ The French thought that greater unity would enable them to influence German policies and remove  long-standing worries about security

British government decided not to sign the 1957 Treaty of Rome because:  ∙ If they joined the Community, the European Commission in Brussels would be able to make vital  decisions affecting Britain’s internal economic affairs.  ∙ There were fears that British membership would damage their relationship with the British  Commonwealth as well as their ‘special relationship’ with the USA.  ∙ Most British politicians were afraid that economic unity would lead to political unity, and the loss  of British sovereignty  But decided to join after 4 yrs:  ∙ By 1961 it was obvious that the EEC was an outstanding success – without Britain. Since 1953  French production had risen by 75 per cent while German production had increased by almost 90  per cent. Britain’s economy was much less successful – over the same period British production  had risen by only about 30 per cent.  ∙ Although EFTA which was joined by Britain had succeeded in increasing trade among its  members, it was nothing like as successful as the EEC.  ∙ The Commonwealth, in spite of its huge population, had nothing like the same purchasing power as  the EEC. New thought- there need not be a clash of interest between Britain’s membership of the  EEC and trade with the Commonwealth. There were signs that the EEC was prepared to make  special arrangements to allow Commonwealth countries and some other former European colonies  to become associate members. Britain’s EFTA partners might be able to join as well.  ∙ Another argument in favour of joining was that once Britain was in, competition from other EEC  members would stimulate British industry to greater effort and efficiency. Macmillan also made the  point that Britain could not afford to be left out if the EEC developed into a political union.  reasons of French opposition of British entry into the EEC were the followings: ∙ De Gaulle claimed that Britain had too many economic problems and would only weaken the EEC.  He also objected to any concessions being made for the Commonwealth, arguing that this would be  a drain on Europe’s resources.  ∙ The British believed that de Gaulle’s real motive was his desire to continue dominating the  Community. If Britain came in, she would be a serious rival.  ∙ about Britain’s ‘American connection’  ∙ There was the problem of French agriculture: the EEC with high tariffs (import duties) as Britain’s  agriculture was highly efficient and subsidized to keep prices relatively low. Britain’s entry🡪 competition from Britain and perhaps from the Commonwealth

Brussels Treaty & NATO  ∙ Large scale demobilisation of allied forces @end of 2ndww 🡪 Conference of Yalta & Potsdam +  soviet expansion🡪 fear of security 🡪 Brussels treaty  ∙ Originally France+ netherlands+ belgium+ luxembourg+ UK aim – set out terms for economic,  socio cultural cooperation esp. self defence🡪 1st step post war reconstruction of W European  security & development of common defence  ∙ NATO – Brussels treaty led to signing of Washington Treaty & formtion of NATO; HQ- brussels;  defense froom soviet joined by CANADA & US  Brussels paved way for NATO  ∙ Brussels treaty- historical documents 🡪 inc cooperation + shared military strength  ∙ Gave evidence to canada & US of intention & determination to reestablish common defence &  control soviet domination  ∙ Provision of collective self defense+ military aid & assistance  Events leading to formation of NATO  ∙ TRUMAN DOCTRINE- US determination to help nations threatened by communism ∙ MARSHAL PLAN- European recovery plan – US economic aid to contain communism ∙ Both committed US as leader on W world containng communism  ∙ Berlin blockade by USSR 🡪 west military unpreparedness + frightened them into making definite  preparations 🡪 formation of NATO  NATO gave key role to US in Europe:  ∙ US traditional poolicy of no netangling alliances abandoned + 1st advance military action pledge ∙ Institutional structure linking US with Europe permanently + imp role being largest military &

economic power  ∙ US got a legitimate umbrella to establish military hegemony over europe & then over world 🡪 military basis, arms exports, missiles deployment  ∙ US also aimed to defend massive capital investments it had made in europe & to keep its economic  hold over europe intact  Soviet reaction  ∙ With its affliated Communist nations in Eastern Europe founded a rival alliance, the Warsaw  Pact🡪 alignment of nearly every European nation into one of the two opposing camps formalized  the political division of the European continent that had taken place since World War II  ∙ more directly inspired by the rearming of West Germany and its admission into NATO in 1955. ∙ Joining the USSR in the alliance were Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic  Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland and Romania. This lineup remained constant until the  Cold War ended  ∙ focused on the objective of creating a coordinated defense among its member nations in order to  deter an enemy attack  ∙ internal security component too - alliance provided a mechanism for the Soviets to exercise even  tighter control over the other Communist states in Eastern Europe and deter pact members from  seeking greater autonomy. Eg. Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia in 1968- presented action  by Warsaw not USSR

German Unification –  BY COAL & IRON   ∙ creation of zolleverein & Prussia supremacy- same currency, weights & measures 🡪 inc  cooperation  ∙ pol effect of zolleverein in isolation Austria  ∙ shift of power from individual rulers of state to middle class through zolleverein ∙ economic strength + progress in military strength  ∙ expansion of communication eg railways 🡪 rise of press  BY BLOOD & IRON  ∙ role of bismarck & use of force  ∙ failure of unification attempt in 1848 & 51🡪 economy still not enough  ∙ states still turned to Austria for political matters  ∙ War with Denmark, Austria & France for unification🡪 war with Austria compulsory to dictate  terms of peace & exclude Austria from north confedration  Conclusion- base provided by coal & iron on which blood & iron was built

Contrasts in italy & german unification  ∙ In geography 🡪 settin gup of boundaries  ∙ Economic factors🡪 Zollverein presence; economic policies of cavour in Piedmont ∙ Results of 1848 revolution 🡪 raised prestige of piedmont among Italians while Prussian  constituion could not satisfy liberal demands nor nationalist, other state no increase in prestige ∙ Internal conflict in unification 🡪 no conflict in Italy while Germany debate of lesser & greater  (including Austria)Germany + more difficulty in expulsion of Austria from Germany ∙ Problem of Pope & foreign rulers in Italy while Germany no such case  ∙ Austria major control over Italy while formal head in Germany  ∙ Foreign intervention🡪 realpolitik of Cavour ; Germany role of Bismarck + military power ∙ Leadership approach 🡪Bismarck, Cavour, Garibaldi & Mazzzini

Battle of Sadowa:  ∙ decisive battle of the Austro-Prussian Seven Weeks War, in which Prussia defeated the Austrian  Empire. Though Austria was defeated in this battle, it is said that the real loser was France. ∙ rapidity and completeness of the Prussian victory upset all the calculations of the French Emperor  Napoleon🡪 expected a long-drawn 🡪 intervention enabling him territorial gains 🡪 Prussian  defeat leave germany weakened & divided 🡪disappointed  ∙ traditional policy of France to keep Germany weak and divided🡪 defeateddu eto neutral stance of  napolean

∙ felt that France had lost her predominant position in Europe.   ∙ the military success of Prussia as an unmistakable challenge to France and even a menace to her  security.  ∙ The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded “Revenge for Sadowa”, which  formed part of the build-up to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, where France was badly defeated.

Meiji Restoration +opening of Japan to western influences by US navy in 1853 Internal recnstruction: centralization of authority  ∙ Abolition of feudalism   ∙ National army + army & navy on Prussian & British lines  ∙ Economic progress- currency reforns, new industries, telegraph, train, steamships ∙ Westernization of Japan   ∙ New constitution on Prussian model  ∙ New code of law  ∙ Progress of education – compulsory elementary education   ∙ Social changes due to disappearance of warrior class

The interest of the major powers in the Eastern Question:  ∙ Russian’s interest in the Balkans - bound to the peoples of Balkans by the ties of religion and race.  Russia claimed the rights of protecting them from Turkish misrule + access to mediterranean ∙ England’s interest- India🡪 need to preserve Turkish rule  ∙ Austris’s interest – outlet in Adriatic + russian supremacy to ssecure trade through danube valley +  Pan slavic movement encouraged by russia threat to austria  ∙ French interest- commmercial + special tarde privilege with turks  ∙ German Interest - Bismarck had kept himself aloof of the Eastern Question. But in 1878, at the ∙ Congress of Berlin to solve the Eastern Question, he posed as an “honest broker” and administered  a check on Russia in order to befriend Austria. Germany befriended with Turkey, trained her army  and secured permission to build the Baghdad-Berlin Railways.

Napolean was creator of modern Germany: directly by statemanship indirectly by opposition to his  rule that was aroused  ∙ Territorial reorganisation by napolean  ∙ Abolition of holy roman empire  ∙ Rise of german nationalism

Carbonari movement collapse 🡪 Mazzini & young Italy  Mazzini;s conception of Italian nationality  ∙ Independence, unity & liberty last to be secured through republi must b a triple goal ∙ Republic will make nation. Nation – totality of citizens speaking same language, associated  togetehr with equal political & civil rights in common aim of bringing forces of society  progressively to greater perfection  ∙ Nationalism never divorced from liberalism although its basis was partly linguistic ∙ Others:  ∙ 1st poponent of European unity  ∙ Concept of 3 fold unity  o unity of man- to overcome dispersion of modern man in an industrialised mass civilisation o unity of nation- bind all free individuals of democracy into community of liberty & equality o unity of mankind- peace & collaboration of all nations

Ottoman (Turkish) Empire was “a sick man—a very sick man of Europe”. The reason was: The Ottoman Empire was increasingly falling under the financial control of the European powers and had lost territory in a series of disastrous wars.  Factors of decay  ∙ Administrative inefficiency: The control of the Government over the provincial governors and  other agents, was deplorably defective. The Sultan’s representatives in the outlying provinces like  Egypt, Algiers and Tunis, behaved more like tributary princes than administrative officials.  ∙ Inability to weld together the diverse people: Turkey had subdued many races in south-eastern  Europe, but had made no attempt to assimilate them, nor to fuse them to one body-politic. Full

contempt for the conquered people the Turks cared only to exploit them, leaving them in a kind of  semiindependence as far as administration was concerned.  ∙ Decline of military power: The Turkish Empire was built up by military power, and when this  declined, the empire lacking any other cohesive force, began to fall in pieces before the onslaught  of the aggressive nationalism of the Balkan people.  Factors delaying dismemberment:  ∙ retained their fighting genius, and could as late as 1788 defeat the Habsburg forces ∙ geographical position Turkey was remote from the centre of European politics🡪 Europe got  concerned with rise of eastern question + conflicting interests & rivalries + use by turks of rivalries  to prolong their empire  ∙ suspicion about russian designs upon tirkey + fear of russian control over constantipole weaken  british hold🡪 british policy to check russian advance  BY 1914 ENTIRE EUROPE WAS SICK BECAUSE:  ∙ full of suspicion & secret treaties; no country knew real friends or foes; arms race made europe  ticking bomb  ∙ crumbling balance of power🡪 balkan crisis, moroccancrisis🡪 sign of sickness ∙ not only peace threatened but also territorial integrity  ∙ just like Ottoman empire fell after ww1 europe was almost destroyed with huge loss of life &  property 🡪 european power eroded & USA rose as new power centre  hence, by 1914 suck man of Europe was no longer just Turkey but Europe itself

Crimean War 1853-56 🡪 russians & british, turkey, french, sardinia- piedmont ∙ caused by russian demands to exercise protection over orthodox subjects of ottoman sultan  ∙ disputes b/w russo france over privileges of Russian orthodox & roman catholic churches in holy  places  useless war:  ∙ silly reason of quarrel over religious places  ∙ did not solve eastern ques permanently🡪 treaty of paris provisions not permanent ∙ sultan never carried reforms promised in treaty for christian population on ottooman empire ∙ main aim – weaken russia & check expansion🡪 checked in europe transfer to c asia ∙ enormous cost of war without enduring results  ∙ 14yrs later russia threw away treaty; black sea neutrality removed & 1878 all restrictions wiped out Counter view:Not immediate results but pl developments should be focussed:  ∙ Disturbed state system of congress of vienna + let lose forces which secured triump of liberalism &  nationalism  ∙ Metternich policy of status quo set aside 🡪 unification of italy  ∙ Russian defeat🡪 reforms & lifted out of medieval stagnation  ∙ Imp regrouping of powers🡪 unification of germany

Bismarchian alliance system  Need: france humiliation in france prussian war ; loss of alsace lorraine + opportunity to avenge national  humiliation & to recove rlost territories; france will never accept powerful germany next door Alliances:  ∙ With austria & good relation with russia (french isolation)🡪 battle of sadowa  ∙ League of 3 emperor- russia, germany , austria- hungary  ∙ Austro german alliance- 1879  ∙ Triple alliance of 1882- add of Italy🡪 isolation of france; status quo; peace with german  hegemony  ∙ Reinsurance treaty with russia in 1888

Corporate State’ Was Mussolini’s Answer To Sociopolitical Problems Of His Country. Problems:  ∙ Class conflict prevalent 🡪 society split into working class, middle, industrialist🡪 strikes ∙ Inc in violent activities by left wing communist parties & right wing  ∙ Working 🡪 exploitation + fear of capitalists about left wing revolution 🡪 economic condition  worsened 🡪 political instabilities 🡪 crisis due to 1st ww + inefficient economic system

Mussolini’s answer  ∙ coop b/w employers & workers🡪 end class warfare  ∙ both capitalist & communist flawed 🡪 both caused unrest, class struggle + socio political  problems🡪 solution 🡪 corporate statr  characteristics:  ∙ 22 co. each 4 separate industry  ∙ Companies pvt owned 🡪 competition but corporation state control  ∙ Dispute resol in corporate🡪 fascist controlled unions negotiated on behalf of workers 🡪 ban on  strikes & lockouts 🡪 other benefits to workers  ∙ Crushed class conflict in favour of corporatism  ∙ Idea of corporate state same as socialism contribute themselves to state  ∙ Lack of industrail resources 🡪 intensive development of indigenous domestic sources + aggressive  commercial policies  ∙ Performace:  ∙ Mussolini- it as a revolution. Reality- few changes in economy- working classes answerable 2 e  mployers gained little in return  ∙ Employees lost freedom employers govt support🡪 class conflict not resolved  ∙ Critcised by both capitalist & socialist  ∙ Short term- reformed tax system; inefficient state owned industry disposed off, gov tcost cut; tariff  to protect new industry🡪 italy backward economically & inefficient

Appeasement was the policy followed by the British and later by the French, of avoiding war with  aggressive powers such as Germany, Italy and Japan, by giving way to their demands, provided they were  not too unreasonable. Appeasement was mainly a British policy, with which the French did not always  agree.  Hitler;s goals:  ∙ Retake control of territoried lost @versailles such as rhineland  ∙ Rearm its military forbidden under versailles  ∙ Lebensraum by expanding borders  ∙ Unite all german speaking under Nazi control  It ascalated the problem as:  ∙ No action to check rearmament  ∙ Anglo german naval agreement  ∙ No uk frnch interference in spanish war while germany & italy did  ∙ Germany austria union uk french protested while many in uk favoured it  ∙ Lack of action on demands on czechoslovakia  ∙ Appeasement convinced of uk french complacency & will to attack poland  Appeasement was justified in several ways:  ∙ Essential to avoid war - Britain, still in the throes of the economic crisis, could not afford vast  rearmament and the crippling expenses of a major war  ∙ Many felt that Germany and Italy had genuine grievances. Italy had been cheated at Versailles and  Germany had been treated too harshly  ∙ Since the League of Nations seemed to be helpless, Chamberlain believed that the only way to  settle disputes was by personal contact between leaders.  ∙ Economic co-operation between Britain and Germany would be good for both. If Britain helped the  German economy to recover, Germany’s internal violence would die down.  ∙ Fear of communist Russia  ∙ There was belief that Britain ought not to take any military action in case it led to a full-scale war,  for which Britain was totally unprepared. British military chiefs told Chamberlain that Britain was  not strong enough to fight a war against more than one country at the same time. The USA was still  in favour of isolation and France was weak and divided  ∙ Appeasement can still be blamed for the Second World War:  Appeasement was largely responsible for the situation deteriorating into war. Britain and France should  have taken a �rm line with Hitler before Germany had become too strong: an Anglo-French attack on

western Germany in 1936 at the time of the Rhineland occupation would have taught Hitler a lesson and  might have toppled him from power. By giving way to him, the appeasers increased his prestige at home. Success and the absence of resistance tempted Hitler to reach out further, to take bigger risks. He may not  have had de�nite plans for war, but after the surrender at Munich, he was so convinced that Britain and  France would remain passive again, that he decided to gamble on war with Poland.

Nazism & Italian Fascism :  Characteristics of Fascism:  ∙ Corporatism  ∙ Extreme Nationalism  ∙ A one party state  ∙ Rejection of individualism and importance of the state  ∙ Economic self sufficiency (autarky)  ∙ Use of propaganda  ∙ Militarism and social darwinism  ∙ Totalitarian sytem of govt  Similarities:  ∙ Anti communist & anti democratic  ∙ Belief in totalitarian state  ∙ Attempt to make country self sufficient  ∙ Glorified war  ∙ Emphasis on supremacy of state  ∙ Support to employers restriction on employees  Differences:  ∙ Rejection of concept of race & anti semitism  ∙ Fascism belief in corporatism to form an organic state , not racial, state most imp, no human  beyond it  ∙ Fascism fuelled by nationalism did not reject other nationalities; mussolini focus on territorial  expansion rather than creation of ethinically clean state  ∙ 1938 change in policy anti semitic laws🡪 considered anti italian & unfascist  ∙ Nazism concept of racial superiority & inferiority 🡪 ethnic germans

Reasons of necessity of Metternich:  ∙ Attributes of great pol leader, brilliant & engaging presence, cool head, diplomatic affairs;  patritotic will; adaptable to circumstances+ bold handling  ∙ Napolean time🡪 austrian crisis🡪 vigour to policy of Austria 🡪 conqueror of napolean🡪 austrian  invention decisive factor  ∙ Congress of vienna- 40 yrs peace  ∙ Decided how events were to shape themselves🡪 peace & stability acting as messiah ∙ Policy directed by needs to preserve empire🡪 status quo by checking revoluton🡪 support france in  crushing spanish revolt  Shortcomings:  ∙ Failure to recognise he was growing old while world was renewing  ∙ Status quo policies🡪 hostility to desires & aspirations of people 🡪 suppress nationalist &  democratic movements of germany; balkans;; never came to terms with new age  ∙ Genius instrumental not creative 🡪 excelled at manipulation not construction; intriguer &  opportunist  ∙ Temporary success of policies-🡪 fight for lost cause 🡪 inflexible & repressive policies increased  revolutions  ∙ Illusion of himself as policeman at cebtre of grand police state

Triggers of revolution :  ∙ Agrarian crisis: shortfall in food supply; famine & hunger riots(ireland flanders)🡪 industrial slump ∙ Class conflict🡪 marx nd engel  ∙ Emperical studies of social disorder

∙ Simultaneity & regional distribution 🡪 geo distribution & pol distres 

∙ Industrial crisis 🡪 With the exception of the Netherlands, those countries known to have  experienced an industrial shock underwent a revolution as well. By contrast, in England and  Sweden there was neither an industrial production shock nor a revolution. 

∙ Role of insitututions 🡪 violent if the regime was repressive ; The countries for which hypothesis of  economic crisis leading to the revolution fails (Denmark, Norway, and the Netherlands) were all  governed by nonrepressive, liberal regimes. 

The year 1848 was the year of revolutions in Europe. The completeness of democratic triumph I France  sent a thrill of hope throughout Europe, and everywhere the pent-up feelings of liberalism burst their  barriers and surged irresistibly over the Continent. From Vienna to Paris, from Berlin to Naples, there were  popular uprisings. 

The motives which inspired the Revolutions were mostly different in different countries. In France  the movement was republican and socialist; in Germany it was constitutional and for national unity;  in Italy it was for national liberation and unity; in Austrian Empire, it was mainly democratic and  nationalistic. 

But it is not right to say that there were absolutely no resemble of Revolutions in different parts of Europe  as motives of the Revolution was not the same throughout the movement and it also di�ered with different  groups and persons in the same nation. There were many similarities between the motives of two or more  revolutions like democratic reform, republicanism (In France and partially in Italy under Mazzini and  Garibaldi), national unification (in Italy and Germany), nationalistic (in Hungary, Bohemia, Italy,  Germany), constitutional reform (in most of the nations). This can be seen from the following examples: 

∙ In France, The Revolution of 1848 was republican movement coloured by socialist ideas. The  people demanded an enlargement of the franchise. Side by side with this demand was arose  demands of socialists who aimed at the re-construction of society. Socialism and republicanism  would not brook monarchy and so expulsion of Philippe was followed by establishment of a  republic. 

∙ Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire was shaken to its foundation. Vienna, the “very  headquarters of the European reaction,” rose in tumult and compelled the resignation of Metternich.  The movement here was partly popular and partly intellectual with predominantly democratic aims.  After Metternich �ed, Emperor Ferdinand I was forced to grant a liberal constitution. 

∙ In the Austrian Empire, one more centre of movement was Prague, the capital of Bohemia. There  the Czech, a Slav people, rose in revolt, demanding equality of rights with the Germans, and self government for their kingdom. The movement was nationalistic and distinctly anti-German. 

∙ Another centre of movement was Budapest in Hungary. It was a Magyar movement which aimed at  national autonomy and constitutional government. 

∙ Italy -In Italy, the hopes of the people were running high after the new Pope Pius IX undertook  liberal reforms in the Papal States. When Metternich tried to coerce the Pope, it caused a wave of  furious indignation to sweep over all Italy. Anti-Austrian feelings increased and 1848 was the year  of Revolution when in Sicily people arose against the despotism of the Neapolitan Government,  demanding autonomy and constitutional reforms. It spread to the mainland. So far the movement  was democratic and it met with temporal success with many principalities granting constitutional  and parliamentary system of government. Movement had element of republicanism also as Mazzini  and Garibaldi also set up Republic in Rome and then Republic was set up in Tuscany but they were  short lived. 

∙ But the democratic movement soon developed into a struggle for independence and Italian  uni�cation. The news of the rising in Paris, followed by the news of the revolution in Vienna and  the �ight of Metternich, sent a thrill of hope throughout Italy. 

∙ Austrian troops were driven out from Milan and Venice by Italian. A universal impulse stirred all  over Italy. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia-Piedmont, unsuccessfully led a national war against  Austria. 

∙ Though the revolution failed but it is important because �rst time people had combined in a  common cause in the name of Italian nationalism. 

∙ Germany 

∙ The French Revolution of 1848 had powerful reverberations in Germany. All over the country 

excitement ran high and the people forced their rulers to grant constitutional reforms. ∙ In Germany, the struggle for constitutional liberty was closely bound with that for national unity.  When popular movement broke out and spread, everywhere liberals demanded civil rights, the  freedom of press and constitutional government. Thesedemands were conceded most of the states  and for a time being liberalism triumphed all over Germany. But after the failure of Frankfort  parliament, reactionary forced triumphed and the Diet was dismissed but few States like Prussia  gave the people a constitution, though not democratic constitution.

VIENNA CONGRESS:  Congress of Vienna was an assembly in 1814–15 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.  Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, were mainly involved powers that were chie�y instrumental in  the overthrow of Napoleon.  The Vienna Congress ignored the forces of the time  ∙ ignored popular sentiments and made a settlement that did not stand the test of the time.  ∙ history of the nineteenth century is mainly concerned with the undoing of the work of the Vienna  Congress.  ∙ The real charge 🡪 ignored the challenge of the French Revolution. They wilfully shut their eyes to  the new forces of democracy and nationalism which the French Revolution had let lose all over the  Europe.   ∙ set aside all national considerations in order to secure the balance of power and dynastic interests.  True to the traditions of Old Regime, they thought in terms of dynasties and states and proceeded  once more to treat the European peoples as so many pawns in the game of dynastic  aggrandisement. That was why the aspirations of the people of Germany were ignored and the  princes were left all powerful there, why the Italian states were handed over to the domination of  Austria, why Belgium was yoked to an uncongenial partner and Norway joined to Sweden. In each  case the newly awakened national aspirations were ignored. Thus, the autocrats of Vienna set  themselves against the new forces of the age. It was the failure to gauge the potential strength of  the new forces that betrayed their lack of insight and constituted the chief defect in their work. Criticism of the Vienna Congress has been unduly harsh  It is on this ground that the work of the Congress has been strongly criticised and often with undue  harshness. But it should be noted, as Ketelby remarks, “it is given to few Congress to legislate for a  century.”  1. The diplomats of Vienna were not prophets and could not be expected to provide against remote  contingencies.  2. Their settlement has at least secured peace for forty years.  3. Besides, the diplomats were handicapped by previous pledges and treaties by which they had agreed to  restore many of the rulers and to compensate others. Hence they had to adopt the principles of legitimacy  and compensation. But it was hypocritical not to extend the doctrine of legitimacy to republics like  Venice and Genoa. Both of them had a longer and more glorious life of independence than many  monarchies, but both were extinguished in the supposed interest of securing North Italy against French aggression.  Vienna Congress accomplished certain accomplished facts  Arrangements of Vienna embodied the profound changes in political relationships and values which had  taken place during the previous twenty years. In other words, they recognised certain important changes  that had taken place in their relative position of the Powers and gave e�ect to certain tendencies which  were already at work.  ∙ Thus Russia was recognised as a great power, and her aggrandizement and intrusion into the affairs  of Western Europe were acknowledged.   ∙ The decline of the European importance of Sweden was registered by the abandonment of her  trans-Baltic ambitions.   ∙ The changes made by Napoleon in Germany were recognised.  ∙ The Holy Roman Empire disappeared and the number of the German states were considerably  reduced.  ∙ The Vienna settlement contained the seed of momentous development🡪 strengthening of the  Kingdom of Sardinia by the addition of Genoa stimulated the House of Savoy towards the  fulfilment of its Italian mission. Hence an unconscious step was taken towards Italian unity.

∙ The acquisition of the Rhine lands by Prussia was an important step towards Prussianisation of  Germany. Henceforth she, and not Austria, became the champion of Germany against France.  Austria by abandoning her outpost on the west in exchange for Italian possessions, and by  relinquishing the duty of guarding the Rhine frontier, became a non-German power with important  interest outside Germany. The result was that she came to neglect German interests. It was this  policy which eventually led to her expulsion from Germany and the unification of that country  under the dominant leadership of Prussia.  Thus, two of the most remarkable achievements of the nineteenth century- uni�cation of Italy and  Germany- had their germs in the work of the Vienna Congress.

July revolution of 1830  Louis X reactionary policies  ∙ Restored old regime🡪 undid revolution🡪 govt on divine rights 🡪 interest of clergy & nobility at  expense of popular liberty  ∙ Priveleges restored to clregy + money to indemnify losses during revolution  ∙ Jesuits allowed to return & penalties for sacrilege & blasphemy increased  ∙ July ordinances issued which essentially meant revocation of constitution 🡪 protests🡪 fighting 🡪 abdication of king charles & louis philippe as new king  o Suspension of press liberty  o Dissolving chamber of deputies  o Changing electoral system  o Reducing no of voters

KMT’s weakness  ∙ The KMT administration was inefficient and corrupt, much of its American aid finding its way into  the pockets of officials.  ∙ KMT had to bear the main burnt of the Japanese invasion and strain of long resistance to the enemy  weakened and impoverished the KMT army.  ∙ Its armies were poorly paid and were allowed to loot the countryside which alienated people from  KMT. The KMT tried to terror ize the local populations into submission, but this only alienated  more areas.  ∙ Its policy of paying for the wars by printing extra money resulted in galloping inflation, which  caused hardship for the masses and ruined many of the middle class.  ∙ Subjected to communist propaganda, the troops gradually became disillusioned with Chiang and  began to desert to the communists  ∙ KMT distrusted the masses and depended on the support of landlords and propertied classes. Hence  it lost touch with the people and failed to win over their sympathy.  ∙ There was little improvement in factory conditions   ∙ There was no improvement in peasant poverty  ∙ Chiang also made some tactical blunders: like Hitler, he could not bear to order retreats and  consequently his scattered armies  ∙ The KMT put up no effective resistance to the Japanese:  ∙ Chiang’s ‘New Life Movement’ was controversial: New Life Movement which, he claimed, was a  unique secular, rational and modern Chinese version of Confucianism  Communist strength  ∙ Alliance of CCP with KMT and a national front against the Japanese brought great advantages for  the communists  ∙ The communists continued to win popular support by their restrained land policy, which varied  according to the needs of particular areas: some or all of a landlord’s estate might be confiscated  and redistributed among the peasants, or there might simply be rent restric tion.  ∙ Communist armies were well disciplined and communist administration was honest and fair. ∙ The apparent strength of the KMT was decep tive: in 1948 the ever-growing communist armies  were large enough to abandon their guerrilla campaign and challenge Chiang’s armies directly. As  soon as they came under direct pressure, the KMT armies began to disintegrate.  ∙ The CCP leaders, Mao Zedong and Zhou En-lai, were shrewd enough to take advantage of KMT  weaknesses and were completely dedicated.

Impact on the Chinese Revolution on the course of International Relations:  ∙ It gave a serious setback to the prestige of United States.  ∙ The emergence of Communist China provided a new tilt to the balance of power between the  Western powers and Communists  ∙ The emergence of China produced revolutionary impact on the whole of Asia. On the one hand, it  greatly influenced the nationalist forces in Asia and Africa and on the other hand, it became an  experimental ground for the industrial development of all the backward countries. It also became  symbolic superiority of Com munist system, over capitalist system, and naturally upset Americans. ∙ The Revolution of 1949 marked the advent of Communism in Asia.  ∙ The Revolution left a deep impact on Africa bys upporting nationalist movements ∙ The emergence of Red China also left a deep impact on the policy of Soviet Union. Though  initially the Soviet leaders considered the emergence of Communist in China as increased its  military power, but soon they discovered that China was posing as a rival for leadership of the  Communist world. This gave rise to struggle for supremacy and ideological conflict between Soviet Union and China, and posed a serious threat to Soviet leadership of the Communist world.

Spanish civil war was prelude to WWI  ∙ Use of modern technology & tactics🡪 use of blitzkrieg (swift military action), carpet bombing,  new tank warfare tactics, air power imp role- towns bombing & civilian targets  ∙ Ideological warfare- both sides motivated by passionate attachement to ideologies 🡪 reflected  multiracial armies 🡪 fascist Franco & supporters v/s republic with left leaning govt. fascist &  conservatives funded with cash & supplies by nazi germany & fascist italy; republic support by  USSR, + volunteers from portuguese, France , USA 🡪 ideologies fascism, communism ,  capitalism  ∙ Involvement of multiple countries  ∙ Other factors- Britain & France led a pol alliance of 27 nations that promised embargo on all  arms to spain. Germany, italy & ussr signed officially but blatantly ignored it  ∙ Fascist forces won bcoz of appeasement by democracies 🡪 spanish war msg to world,  warning of perils & events to come 🡪 inc tensions in Europe in lead up to ww2

Berlin congress 1878- failed to unlock eastern question:  ∙ It was diplomatic meeting of major european powers Treaty of Berlin replaced San Stefano treaty  which was signed @ end of russo turkish war   ∙ Solved crisis by revising peace settlement to satisfy interests of Britain & Austria- Hungary Though solved in short run failed in long run  ∙ Revised treaty not in interest of justice & equity but in interests of Britain & Austria 🡪 called  themselves guarantor of turkish integrity but took large portion of turkish spoil  ∙ Ignored national sentiment of balkan people 🡪 slavs handed to Austrian rule & division of  Bulgaria  ∙ Christians of Macedonia left in hand of turkish sultan even after atrocities  Peace for near future seed of future war  ∙ Holding back urssia & encouraged austria allowed to acquire territory 🡪 inc complication  ∙ Bismarck though posed as honest broker obliged to take sides between austria & russia 🡪 chose  austria & alienated russia 🡪 russia shifted to france & formed dual alliance while bismarck formed  triple alliance  ∙ Failed to consider aspirations of Balkans 🡪 Balkan wars  ∙ Other reasons for balkan wars & ww1 🡪 inc arm race, imperialism, nationalism, balance of power  games, secret treaties etc many of which were born out of berlin congress

New Deal of Franklin D roosevelt   ∙ Great depression of US 🡪 stock markets crashed 🡪 speculators lost everything, banks failed,  money supply diminished, companies bankrupt & workers fired 🡪 inc unemployment ∙ Aims of new deal:  o Relief: to help poverty stricken millions without food & homes  o Recovery : reduce unemployment, stimulate demans, get economy moving again o Reform: take measure to prevent economic disaste  ∙ Measure : banking reform laws, emergency relief programmes, agri programs 🡪 union protectoin

program, Social security act ; aid tenant farmers & migrant workers; national industrial recovery  act;federal emergency relief act  ∙ Criticism of new deal : businessmen – inc burden due to growth of trade unions, working hours &  wage regulation & inc taxe;; resentment from state govt as undu interference by federal govt in  internal matters;; SC declared many programs unconstitutional;; socialists criticised it not being  sufficient enough  ∙ Achievements : relief to destitutes & jobless, confidence in govt; assests of lasting values created;  rise of welfare state; national direction of resources & collective bargaining betweeen workers &  management becmae accepted normal, democracy preserved when fascism was rising  ∙ Limitations of success : lagging in recovery, short term relief; farmers helped but labourers  thrown out ;;Reasons: SC opposition; cautiousness in spending by Roosevelt  ∙ Introduction of socialism but limited & temporary in nature🡪 rise of welfare state

Provisions of treaty of versailles:  ∙ Germany lost European territories( alsace lorraine to france; w prussia to poland etc); Danzing  made free port under league of nations; african colonies taken & made mandates  ∙ Saar valley under league for 15 yrs then plebiscite to decide to join france or germany. France to  use coal for 15 yrs  ∙ Union of austria germany forbidden  ∙ Estonia, Latvia, Luthania taken from Germany & made independent state with self determination ∙ Restriction og german armaments & ban on conscription, no tanks, military aircraft, submarines,  rhineland permanently demilitarised  ∙ War guilt clause 🡪 german blamed for war solely  ∙ Germany to pay reparation for damage done to allies  ∙ League of nations was set up  German objections:  ∙ Dictated peace🡪 germany not allowed into discussions🡪 reason given German forced treaty of  Brest Litovsk on russia  ∙ Several provisions nt based on 14 points of wilson like principle of self determination not applied  togermany & austria 🡪 invalid as germany never accepted it & it was informal  ∙ Loss of territory in europe; african colonies distributed as mandates without offcial admittance of  distribution  ∙ Separation of germanyinto two by creation of a polish corridor & handover of silesia to poland was  most offensive  ∙ Disarmament clause 🡪 practically impossible  ∙ War guilt clause & heavy reparations  ∙ Conclusion- treaty was harsh but could hv been more harsh by giving danzing to poland, rhine as  independent state, saar permanent to franch as proposed by Clemenceau

Total war was a revolutionary departure from traditional theories of conflict. The Second World  War was a total war due to the following reasons  ∙ all the resources of the State and the whole activity of the nation were mobilised for war purposes ∙ The strategic bombing was the instrument by targetiing enemy population & attack on domestic  morale or economic targets 🡪 bombing of not forces in field but war willingness & material  capacity of society behind then  ∙ The omnipotence of the State was exercised as never before. It took control of the activities of  every sphere of life and subordinated them to the exigencies of the war.  ∙ Worldiwde scope & strategy of war & war fought on all quarters of globe  ∙ Unparalled mobility🡪 Hitler’s Blitzkrieg or lightning war struck down 6 nations in 3 months

Most imp factor following 1919 was french demand of security against possible German aggression I  nfuture 🡪 main component of foreign policy of france. Methods employes by France: ∙ Keep germany weak – insistence on harsh settlement; attempt to force Germans to pay by  occupation of Ruhr valley  ∙ Network of bilateral alliances – demand of physical guarantee rejected at Versailles by US &  Britain 🡪 Anglo American guarantee treaty of 1919 gv frnech guarantee of security in case of

german aggression🡪 did not materialise due to senate refusal 🡪 french felt cheated & insecure 🡪 pacts with poland, czechoslovakia, romania, yugoslavia  ∙ Worked fo rstrong league of nations & security alliances ( geneva protocol, locarno treaties;  kellogg briand pact)  ∙ Compromise & reconcilliation – daves plan ; improved relation with germany & britain 🡪 british assurance🡪 french liberal but fear continued

Germany Was Officially Asked To Attack The East, In Return For Peace In The West – LOCARNO  TREATIES or  Locarno treaty in long run was destructive of both treaty of versailles & the convenant  The Locarno treaty, signed in 1925, was a series of agreements involving Germany, France, Belgium,  Britain, Italy, Poland and Czechoslovakia. All agreements were aimed at guaranteeing peace in Europe.  The most important agreement was that Germany, France and Belgium promised to respect their joint  frontiers; if one of the three broke the agreement, Britain and Italy would assist the state which was being  attacked. The agreements were greeted all over Europe, and there was hope for the reconciliation between  France and Germany. Many called this period of enthusiasm and hope as the ‘Locarno honeymoon’, but in  the words of Polish leader Jozef Beck, by this treaty,“Germany was offcially asked to attack the east, in  return for peace in the west.” The reasons were the following:  ∙ The treaty made the distinction between the eastern and western borders of Germany, as defined by  the Treaty of Versailles. While Germany agreed that her western frontier with France and Belgium  and permanent demilitarisation of the Rhineland, were final and acceptable to her, she refused to  treat her eastern border with Poland and Czechoslovakia with the same finality. She didn’t refuse to  seek out revision of her border with eastern neighbours. Germany renounced the use of force to  change its western frontiers but agreed only to arbitration as regards its eastern frontiers. This had  serious implication as it became clear that only such parts of the treaty of Versailles were really  binding as were later willingly accepted by Germany.  ∙ This made legally binding treaty of Versailles less applicable than voluntarily accepted Locarno  treaty.  ∙ Britain promised to defend Belgium and France but not Poland and Czechoslovakia. By this,  Britain gave the impression that she might not act if Germany attacked Poland and Czechoslovakia. ∙ The Locarno treaty encouraged both the view that the Versailles Treaty lacked binding force, and  the view that governments could not be expected to take military action in defence of frontiers in  which they themselves were not directly interested.  ∙ In long run it ed to the German aggression in the east with the subsequent attacks which led to the  Second World War and even peace in the west was not achieved.  ∙ Implications more visible when germany signed friendship pact with soviet union power  antagonistic to league system

AJP Taylor- Hitler did not really want a world war his intention was only a short war with Poland

League of nations was a league of notions:  Favour:  ∙ Too closely linked to versailles treaties  ∙ Rejected by USA  ∙ Other important powers not involved- Germany 1926 joined left in 1933, USSR in 1934 ∙ Difficult to take decisive action against any aggressor : no unanimous decision; no military force of  its own; 1923 resolution each member to decide for itself whether or not to fight in a crisis🡪 nonsense idea of collective security; no actions against Germany & Italy instead policy of  appeasement  ∙ Failure of attempts to reform to league & reluctance of commitment from Britain 🡪 public opinion  too pacifist; military weakness 🡪 attitude of leaving to others  Against:  ∙ Stopped some wars: arbitration b/w sweden & finland; stopped invasion of Bulgaria by Greece;  Kellogg Briand pact that outlawed war  ∙ 4lac pow home & set up refuggee camps

∙ Health committee; work against leprosy; attacked slave owners  ∙ Some organisations have their origin in league- ILO etc  ∙ Structure & base for UN

Anglo Japan treaty of 1902 & rise of Japan as an Asian power:  ∙ Signed in london 🡪 obligated either party to remain neutral if one or other found itself @ war; if  either confronted by 2 or more opponents the other would come to itd ais 🡪 against the potential  shared menace by France & Russia  Reasons of rise of Japan as Asian power:  ∙ Triump of Japan & powerful influence in boosting national confidence as 1st time european  country allied with asian country against western rival  ∙ In effect british tacitly sanctioned Japanese aggression in Korea  ∙ Served Japan in Russo Japanese war by dicouraging France from entering war due to british  intervention fear🡪 inc prestige of Japan 🡪 rise of Japan as only Asian pwer that could defet  European power  ∙ Success of Japan 🡪 domination of Manchuria 🡪 boost to Japanese imperialism

Manchuria crisis decided the fate of League of Nations  ∙ Crisis – 1930s depression 🡪 Japan trying to overcome & build empire 🡪 troops invaded Chinese  territory of Manchuria & threw out chinese while china seeked league’s help  ∙ Response of League – condemned Japan; ordered troops withdrawl refusal by a Japan; left league ∙ Crisis exposed weakness of league- acc to league rules failure to comply should hv been followed  by economic sanctons or collective military action 🡪 nothing done 🡪 many countries imp trade  relation & arm deals 🡪 Britain & France unwilling to impose sanctions  ∙ Japanese stayed in Manchuria defying the league 🡪 league powerless in face of determined  aggressor 🡪 prestige damaged🡪 steps followed by Germany in 1935 & Italy in 1936

Russo Japanese war 1904-05 over imperial ambitions in Manchuria & korea 🡪 Japanese victory 🡪 & rise of Japan 🡪 factors:  ∙ Victorious Japan forced Russia to abandon its expansionist policy in far east – 1st to defeat  european power 🡪 proved military might  ∙ Western powers stunned a tiny island not only prevailed but decisively defeated Russia🡪 won  every battle on land & sea  ∙ Japan portrayed a sense of readiness in taking a more active & leading role in Asian affairs 🡪 widespread nationalism  Rise of Japan🡪 resistance from USA. Japan could not gain territorial gains & monetary reparations from  Russian due to opposition from other powers inspite of that Japan rose

Vietnam struggle for independence post ww2 🡪 role of ho chi minh  ∙ French no intention of leaving 🡪 war. US 🡪 worried about rise of communist 🡪 sipport to french  but french badly defeated bcoz 🡪 use of guerilla tactics, huge public support, french weak due to  ww2 & unable to send troops while vietnam helped by China & USSR  ∙ Geneva agreement 🡪 temporary division of vietnam into 2 states🡪 ho chin mih in north ; south  elections never held🡪 civilwar US support  ∙ US support to prez NGO DINH DIEM 🡪 US fear of communism & domino theory obsession 🡪 increased corruption, bombing, heavy casuality of American forces;civilian death, support from  north vietnam & control of huge part of south due to public support 🡪 Prez Nixon 1975 decided to  withdraw forces after public opinion turned against war 🡪 US withdrawl 🡪 united Vietnam under  Communist

Internal conflicts & weaknesses of NAM:  ∙ Division into 3 camps:  o West sympathisers- singapore, morocco  o Communist sympathisers- cuba, afghanistan, vietnam  o Who tried to cling to policy of NAM- India, Yugoslavia & SL  ∙ Dichotomy between preaching & practice- voting in UN different from consensus in NAM ∙ Internal contradictions- USSR invasion of afghanistan- few supported Muslim nations condemn ∙ Bloody conflict among themselves- iran & irag  ∙ Indo Pak war 1965- Indonesia, Iran, Turkey supported Pak inspite of India supporting Indonesia’

struggle against colonial power  ∙ Chinese attack revealed weakness of NAM as no NAM nation came to help ∙ Unable to bear lingering disputes like middle east  ∙ Not much influence in establishing peace in two blocs  ∙ Freedom of countries like algeria, angola etcc role of NAM negligible 🡪 freedom after bloody  struggle & due imperialist powers internal weaknesses & constraints  ∙ Changes post cold war 🡪 interest lost 🡪 Malta & cyprus exit in 2004 & joined EU

Iron curtain:  ∙ After ww2 🡪 russians interference in Eastern Europe 🡪 pro communist govt 🡪 Poland, Hungary,  Bulgaria, Albania, Romania 🡪 opponents imprisoned or murdered   ∙ Stalin frightened West by 1946 speech 🡪 communism and capitalism could never live peacefully  together, and that future wars were inevitable until the final victory of communism was achieved ∙ Winston Churchill 🡪 called for a Western alliance against the communist threat, whom he accused  of establishing an “iron curtain” from “Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic” i.e. the  Russians were bent on ‘indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines” 🡪 Stalin denounced  churchill as warmonger & revealed his fears about Germany and the need to strengthen Soviet  security.  ∙ Iron Curtain 🡪 ideological conflict & physical boundary dividing Europe into 2areas 🡪 efforts by  USSR to block itself & its satellite states from open contact with west & nonsoviet controlled areas

Opposition to apartheid was inside as well as outside Africa.  Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between  1948 and 1991.  Inside : opposition difficult 🡪 whosoever objected including whites 🡪 accused of being communist  & severly punished under Suppression of Communism Act 🡪 strikes forbidden  ∙ Chief Albert Luthuli- African National Congress leader 1952🡪 protest campaign, certain days  work closure, systematic breach of law,🡪 Luthuli jailed 🡪 campaign ended  ∙ ANC coalition with Asian & coloured groups @ johannesburg in 1955🡪 announced freedom  charter 🡪 police broke the crowd  ∙ Church leaders & missionaries opposed apartheid-  ∙ Bus boycott by ANC 1957  ∙ 1960 Sharpville climax 🡪 huge demostration 🡪 brutal treatment 🡪 leaders turned to violence ∙ Small action group of ANC known as MK (spear of nation) launched; Nelson Mandela prominent  leader 🡪 police clamped down 🡪 imprisonment  ∙ 1976🡪 Transvaal authority announced Afrikaans (language of whites of dutch descent ) to be used  in black African schools 🡪 demonstrations 🡪 police open fired 200 killed 🡪 protests spread to  whole country 🡪 brutal suppresion  Outside South Africa:  ∙ UN & Organisation of African Unity- condemnation + critical of South African occupation of  south west Africa  ∙ UN voted to economic boycott 🡪 useless🡪 not all members supported 🡪 US UK France Italy W  germany condemned apartheid in public 🡪 trade continued + supplied arms to make it bastion  against spread of communism  ∙ From commonwealth 🡪 british pm macmillan 🡪 ignored  Removal 🡪 PM P.W. Botha who started taking steps to reform 1979 onwards 🡪  ∙ blacks allowed to form trade unions; go on strike;   ∙ elect own local township council ( but not in national election);   ∙ a new constitution with 2 houses of parliament one for colored & one for asians (not Africans);  ∙ exual relations & marriages allowed between different races;   ∙ hated pass law for non whites abolished.  Reasons: criticism from abroad gathered momentum🡪 inc external pressue & independence of Portuguese  ruled colonies  ∙ Economic problems 🡪 recession in 1870s & white people worse off & large scale emigration while  black population inc to 84% from 79%  ∙ African homelands created by govt were failure- poverty stricken, corrupt & no foreign govt

recognised them as genuinely independent state  ∙ USA started treating black people better & criticism inc for racist policy in Africa 1980s: consitution made africans unhappy 🡪 sharpville anniversary 🡪 procession 🡪 police firing 🡪 emergency imposed   ∙ Commonwealth sanctions except Britain which took voluntary🡪 economic sanction will  worsen condition of black Africans due to reduced jobs; 1986 US joined  ∙ Black population increased education, middle class  ∙ Dutch reformed church opposition to aparthied   ∙ New PREz FW de Klerk 1989 decided that apartheid should go completely 🡪 move to black  majority rule 🡪 released Nelson Mandela after 27 years 🡪 remaining apartheid laws  dropped 🡪 Namibia given independence 🡪 talks began b/w govt & ANC to work out new  consitution  ∙ ANC🡪 moderate party 🡪 no wholesale nationalization & reassure white safe under black  rule 🡪 condemnation of violence & called for reconciliation   ∙ 1993🡪 transition to black rule though violence & bloodshed; civil war avoided

Arab nationalism:   ∙ Origin when Arab nations revolted against Ottoman domination during ww1  ∙ Questioned right of Sultan of Turkey to be caliph & many claimed Hussein, Grand sheriff of  Mecca & purest of Arab descent had a better claim 🡪 ltd to urban elites; hardly succeeded in  spreading their ideas to wider population  ∙ Check at peace settlements 🡪 arab areas divided among Allied powers  ∙ Again rose post WW2 🡪 independence 🡪 transnational in principle state based in practice Character of unity:  ∙ Premise of nationalism – political, economic, cultural, religious, historical unity & language ∙ For pol unity—Arab league🡪 membership expanded 🡪 ltd achievements due to internal conflicts ∙ Pan Arabism boost under leadership of Colonel Nasser of Egypt 🡪 inc prestige post Suez crisis 🡪  formed United Arab republic with Syria in 1958, ended in 1961 due to domination of nasser ∙ 1970🡪 death of Nasser 🡪 federation of Arab republics 🡪 syria, libya & egypt 🡪 failed due to  internal disputes  ∙ Common enimity against Israel gave boost to Arab unity regardless of boundaries Stood for national independence of separate Arab states, points of disagreement: ∙ Jordan & saudi arabia 🡪 conservative royal families pro western 🡪 crticised by Egypt & syria 🡪 pro Arab nationalists & socialist  ∙ Personal interests of royal families hindered pan Arab unity 🡪 loss of power in case of  disappearance of boundaries  ∙ Historic variations🡪 Egypt ancient origin; syria & libya creation of European powers ∙ Unity against Israel could not overcome internal problems; inconsistent anti Israel attitude ∙ Western powers worked towards disunity by playing one state against other

Détente – French word that means ‘ a relax in tensions’🡪 period of improved relations during cold  war. By 1970s both interested in accomodation & favur of predictble international system : period of  détente 1962-79 Reasons:   ∙ Fear of nuclear war- Cuban crisis that motivated washington moscow hotline ∙ Ostpolitik- new eastern policy of germany 🡪 push for better realtion between east & west  germany & stabilization of European relations   ∙ Vietnam war & USA needs – oil crisis of 1973+ reluctance to engage internationally : USA  wanted détente bcoz of Vietnam: economic costs, public discontent with war; vietnam syndrome aversion to US overseas military involvement; high human cost of war; feeling that USA cannot  win abroad; use of chemical weapons  ∙ USSR needs- period of stagnation; excess expenditure on military/ heavy industry; weak @  consumer goods production & import grains from west; poor technology leading to imports; oil  recession  ∙ Nixon initiatives 🡪 avoid accidental military clashes; arms control; SALT; cooperative  research in variety of areas including space exploration & expanded commerce

∙ Collapse of détente due to Ronald reagen who focussed on military preparedness & invasion  of Afghanistan by USSR

Greater east asia co- prosperity sphere introduced in 1940 to address Japanese self sufficient, asiatic  empire which has united cultural & economic spheres in east & south east Asian region ∙ Inner ring—heavy industries development  ∙ Outer ring- raw material supply  ∙ Hakkaoichiu- ultra nationalist doctrine – Japanese as chosen people to rule East Asian empire 🡪 justify conquest & imperial propaganda  ∙ 3 phases: 1st– arrival & colonial campaign; 2nd- exploitation & transformation of political system;  3rd- retreat  ∙ Methods employed: anti white or anti western campaign; doctrine of hakkaoichiu; abolishment of  racial inferiority  ∙ SE asia- western impact; diverse nationalities cannot apply policy of assimilation 🡪 practical  tactic🡪 permission to display nationalistic symbols, ltd political activities & promise of  independence 🡪 success except phillipines which was already promised independence by US o Burma collaboration with AUng San  o Support to Malayan radicals & muslims & military training  o Military training in Indonesia  ∙ Japanese rule didn’t last long🡪 no fulfillment of promises ; excessive exploitation ∙ Indirect result 🡪 allowed se asian to run own admn, use national language, cementing national  identities & false hope of independence made them more determined to be free

American imperialism in Philippines differed with European imperialism:  ∙ European much older  ∙ Europeans captured nations from local rulers while america captured phillipines from spain ∙ European interest- spice trade; raw material for industries; US- expand economic & strategic  influence into Pacific & asia+ favourable Balance of Trade & places to export; imperialism under  guide of protecting world from oppression of Spanish rule  ∙ US not nearly as systematic or accepted as European; US- partial control ; adm to be temporary &  aimed to develop democracy atleast in theory  ∙ European efforts of conversion to christianity while phillipines mostly christian ∙ US governed with military govt while civil govt under European  ∙ US supported Phillipines to defeat Japanese forces & granted independence immediately while  European did not grant independence immediately

Peace keeping efforts of UN:  ∙ suez crisis solution  ineffective:  ∙ Hungarian rising of 1956 & czech crisis involvement of Russia  ∙ Conflicts in middle east, vietnam Kashmir  Post cold war:  ∙ Namibia mission  ∙ Democratic elections post apartheid S Africa & Cambodia  ∙ Iraqi invasion of Kuwait  ∙ Mission in Somalia- failure ; bosnia- ridicule for ethnic cleansing; Rwanda- failure &  genocide amid indecision of UNSC  ∙ UN mission in Sierra leone civil war supplement by British royal marines & afghan invasion  overseen by NATO after US failed in passing UNSC reoslution 🡪 questions on effectiveness ∙ Present Sudan mission & chemical weapons inspectors to syrian civil war